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Published 20.12.2002. Updated 19.09.2003.

 

COLD FUSION BY PLASMA ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

 

Ph.M. Kanarev

The Kuban State Agrarian University, Department of Theoretical Mechanics

13, Kalinin Street, 350044 Krasnodar,

Russia

E-mail: kanphil@mail.kuban.ru

 

Tadahiko Mizuno

Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University,

Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo 060-8628,

Japan

 

Abstract: It has been disclosed that transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material takes place during plasma electrolysis of water.

Key words: atom, nucleus,  proton, neutron, electron, cathode, low-current.




INTRODUCTION

 

Cold nuclear fusion is the first hypothesis of a source of additional energy in heavy water electrolysis. Fleischmann and Pons, the American electrochemists, are the authors of this hypothesis [1]. They reported about it in 1989. Since that time a large number of experiments has been carried out in order to obtain additional energy from water [2], [3], [4], [5], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12]. We continue to discuss this problem.




THE FIRST EXPERIMENTAL PART

 

In order to check this hypothesis, the following experiments were performed. Two cathodes were made of iron with mass of 18.10 g and 18.15 g. The first cathode operated during 10 hours in KOH solution; the second cathode operated during the same period in NaOH solution. Mass of the first cathode remained unchanged, mass of the second one was reduced by 0.02 g. The tension by  plasmaelectrolysis process was 220 V and the current  (0.5-1.0) A (Fig.1). The indices of the consumption of the solution and the gases being generated were as follows (Table 1).

 





 

Fig. 1. Diagram of gas  generator.  Patent  Nr. 2210630:   7-catode;  11-anode




 

 

      Table 1

Experimental results[1]



Indices

Water consumption, kg

Volume of gases,

Energy expenses,

KOH

0.272

8.75

0.28

NaOH

0.445

12.66

0.21

 

It is known that from one litre of water it is possible to produce 1220 litres of hydrogen and 622 litres of oxygen. Quantity of the gases generated by the plasma electrolytic process is much greater than it is possible to get from consumed water (Table 1) [6]. It gives the reason to think that not only water molecules, but the nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material serve as a source of these gases. The analysing experiment has been performed in order to check this fact.

Tadahiko Mizuno, the famous Japanese scientists (the co-author of this article), who works at the Division of Quantum Energy Engineering Research group of Nuclear System Engineering, laboratory of Nuclear Material System, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo 060-8628, Japan, kindly agreed to perform chemical analysis of the cathode samples with the help of the nuclear spectroscopy method (EDX). Here are the results of his analysis. The content of chemical elements on the surface of non-operating cathode is as follows (Table 2).



Table 2


Chemical composition of the cathode surface prior its operation in the solution

 

Element

          Fe

          %

       99.90

 

The new chemical elements have appeared on the working surface of the cathode, which works in KOH solution (Table 3).



Table 3


Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in KOH solution

 

Element

Si

K

Cr

Fe

Cu

%

0.94

4.50

1.90

93.00

0.45

 

The chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH. Has proved to be different (Table 4).



Table 4


Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH solution

 

  Element

      Al

      Si

        Cl

       K

       Ca

       Cr

       Fe

      Cu

       %

     1.10

      0.55

      0.20

     0.60

     0.40

      1.60

     94.00

      0.65

 



Thus, the hypothesis concerning the participation of the nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material in the formation of gases during plasma electrolysis of water has experimental confirmation. Let us carry out the preliminary analysis of the data being obtained (Tables 2, 3, 4).




THE FIRST  THEORETICAL PART

 

In any of these cases, the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed. The part of its are burned and the other go out with the steam.    We have already shown that the processes of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen and its isotopes result in occurrence  of additional thermal energy [6]. Numerous experiments show that up to 50% of additional thermal energy are generated during the plasma electrolysis of water, it is less than the results of the calculations originating from the existing cold fusion theories [6]. That’s why it is necessary to analyse energetics of the particle creation process during the atomic nucleus transmutation.

Having considered the model of the electron we have found out that it can exist in a free state only when it has a definite electromagnetic mass [6]. Being combined with the atomic nucleus it emits a part of energy in the form of the photons, and its electromagnetic mass is reduced. But stability of its condition does not become worse, because the energy carried away by the photons is compensated by binding energy of the electron in the atomic nucleus [6].

If the ambient temperature is increased, the electron begins to absorb the thermal photons and to pass to higher energy levels of the atom reducing binding with it. When the electron becomes free, it interacts with the atom only if the ambient temperature is reduced. As this temperature is reduced, it will emit the photons and sink to lower energy levels [6].

If the electron is in a free state due to an accidental external influence on the atom and the environment has no photons, which are necessary for it to restore its mass, it begins to absorb the ether from the environment and to restore its constants in such a way: mass, charge, magnetic moment, spin and radius of rotation. The electron acquires the stable free state only after it has restored its all constants [6].

Thus, if an interchange of the free state and binding state with the atom takes place due to the accidental influences on the atom, the electron restores its electromagnetic mass every time due to absorbing the ether. It means that actually it plays the role of a converter of the ether energy into the thermal photon energy.

The Japanese investigators Ohmori and Mizuno [4] registered neutron radiation during plasma electrolysis of water and reported that not only the nuclear process, but the process of the electron capture by the free protons can be the source of this radiation.

As hydrogen plasma is generated during the plasma electrolytic process of water electrolysis, there exists a tendency of the capture of the free electrons by them.

It is known that rest mass of the electron is  , rest mass of the proton is , and rest mass of the neutron is . The difference between the mass of the neutron and the mass of the proton is equal to . It is   of the mass of the electron. Thus, the proton should capture 2.531 electrons in order to become the neutron. The question arises at once: what will happen to the remained of electron mass ? The disturbed balance of masses in this process is explained by modern physics in a simple way: a neutrino is created [6].

As the neutrino has no charge, it is very difficult to register it. If the neutrino takes the excess mass away or replenish the lacking one, can the elementary particles execute this process by themselves?

As the photons are emitted and absorbed only by the electrons, the proton, which absorbs the electrons, cannot convert the remainder of mass of the third electron into the photon. If the electron is absorbed by the third one and gives more than a half of its mass to the proton in order to convert it into the neutron, the remaining part of mass  of the electron, which has no possibility to become the photon, is converted into a portion of the ether, which “is dissolved” and mixed with the ether in the space. The fact that plasma has no photons with the mass corresponding to the part of mass of the third electron, which has not been absorbed by the proton during its conversion into the neutron, can serve as a proof of such affirmation. Let us calculate energy of such photon [6].

The difference the mass of the neutron and the proton is equal to . If we subtract this value from the mass of three electrons, we’ll get mass , from which the photon should be formed [6]



                   (1)



If the photon is formed from this remainder of mass , its energy will be [6]:



                      (2)  



This value of energy corresponds to roentgen spectrum, that’s why the creation of each free neutron should be accompanied by the creation of one roentgen photon. If it does not take place, we have two opportunities: the first one – we should think that in the case when the neutron is created, the neutrino was formed from mass  and flew away in the unknown direction; the second one – there were no conditions for the formation of the photons in the process being considered, and mass , which failed to be formed as a particle, “was dissolved” in the ether. Which variant is closer to the truth [6] ?  There is no exact answer, but it is known that the Japanese scientists registered only neutron radiation with intensity of 50,000 neutrons per second, and they failed to register roentgen radiation [4].

If in this process the roentgen photons were created, they would not exceed heat efficacy of the plasma electrolytic process, because they would not be the thermal photons. The thermal photons are radiated and absorbed when the electrons make the energy transitions to the energy levels, which are the most remote from the atomic nuclei, where the infrared photons and neighbouring ones from the optical range of the spectrum with energies of »(0.001-3.3) eV are generated [6].

Thus, the neutron fusion processes in plasma electrolysis of water will not generate additional thermal energy. But the appearance of the neutrons in plasma will promote the formation of the nuclei of deuterium and, possibly, of tritium. As the balance of masses remains almost unchanged, we have no reason to expect that additional energy will take place when deuterium and tritium are formed. But it is sure to appear during fusion of the atoms of deuterium and tritium, i.e. the hydrogen atoms [6].

In order to become a proton, the neutron should radiate something, which mass is . Let us convert this mass into energy [6].



                                         (3)



This energy corresponds to the gamma range photons, i.e. not to the thermal photons, and this process does not give additional energy. Thus, if the process of the formation of the helium atoms takes place during plasma electrolysis of water, it should be accompanied by gamma radiation. If there is no such radiation, but the helium atoms are formed, the neutrino takes away the above-mentioned portion of mass  or this mass, which has no opportunity to be formed as the photon, “is dissolved” in the environment, i.e. it is transferred into the state of the ether [6]. As the roentgen photons and the gamma photons are not the thermal ones, this process gives no excessive thermal energy [6].

Another variant is possible. When the atoms of alkali metal bombard the cathode atoms, they are destroyed completely and destroy the atoms of the cathode materials. Under the notion “completely” we’ll understand such state when both the atom and the nucleus are destroyed. In this case, the protons of the destroyed nuclei begin to form the hydrogen atoms. The process of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen generate additional thermal energy [6].

But one should bear in mind that if plasma disintegrates water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen  and if these gases contact plasma, hydrogen is combined with oxygen, and water is formed. Noise generated by plasma is hydrogen microexplosions. Taking into consideration the above-mentioned fact the larger the volume of hydrogen burnt in plasma, the smaller its volume in the gas-vapour mixture. It means that such reactor operation modes are required when quantity of burnt hydrogen is minimal one.  Our theory allow us to have such results.

 

As iron is the cathode material, the nuclei of its atoms are the targets of the atomic nuclei of potassium, alkaline metal. During the transmutation of the iron nuclei (Fig. 2, b), the atomic nuclei of chromium (Fig. 2 a) and the atomic nuclei of copper (Fig. 2, c) are formed [6].




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                      a)  Cr (24,28)                          b)  Fe (26,28)                        c) Cu (29,34)                          




Fig. 2. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) chromium, b) iron, c) copper

When the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 2, b) pass into the atomic nucleus of chromium (Fig. 2, a), two protons and two neutrons are released; two atoms of deuterium or one atom of helium can be formed from them. If the neutrons pass into the protons, four atoms of hydrogen are formed.

It is easy to see (Fig. 2) that the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 2, b) should lose two upper protons and two neutrons in order to pass into the atomic nucleus of chromium (Fig. 2, a).

Three additional protons and six neutrons (total 9 nucleons) are required for the formation of the atomic nucleus of copper (Fig. 2, c) from the atomic nucleus of iron. As there are chromium atoms, which, as we think, are formed from the atomic nuclei of iron, on the cathode surface (Table 3) 4fold than the atoms of copper, the solution is sure to have superfluous protons and neutrons of the destroyed atomic nuclei of iron, and we can determined their approximate relative quantity.

Let us suppose that four nuclei of the iron atoms pass into the nuclei of the chromium atom. The total quantity of free protons and neutrons (nucleons) is equal to 16. As one atom of copper falls on each four atoms of chromium, 9 nucleons are spent for the formation of one nucleus of the copper atom, and 7 nucleons remain free.

Let us see what is formed when the nucleus of the potassium atom is destroyed. Potassium is situated in the first group of the fourth period of the periodic law. Its nucleus contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons (Fig. 3, a) [6].




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                               a) K (19,20)                       b) O (8,8)                            c) Si (14,14)



Fig. 3. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) potassium, b) oxygen, c) silicon




In Fig. 3, a, we can see a weak link of the nucleus of the potassium atom [6]. It is situated in the middle of its axis neutrons. When the transmutation of the nuclei of the potassium atoms takes place, the nuclei of the oxygen atoms can be formed (Fig. 3, b) as well as its isotopes and the nuclei of the silicon atoms (Fig. 3, c).

The analysis of the structure of the nuclei of the potassium atom (Fig. 3, a) shows that its is the most probable source of the nucleus of the silicon atom (Fig. 3, c), which atoms appear on the cathode (Table 3).

It is easy to count that during the destruction of one nucleus of the potassium atom and the creation of one nucleus of the silicon atom 5 free protons and 6 free neutrons, i.e. 11 nucleons, are formed.

Thus, the transmutation of the nuclei of the iron atoms and the potassium atoms results in the formation of free protons and neutrons. As the protons cannot exist in free state, the hydrogen atoms are created from them. If the protons are connected with the neutrons after the destruction of the nuclei of the iron atoms and the potassium atoms, the formation of deuterium, tritium and helium is possible.

Let us pay attention to the main fact – absence of the sodium atoms in the cathode material. It is natural that the potassium atoms have appeared on the cathode, which operated in KOH solution (Table 3). Why are no sodium atoms on the cathode, which operated in NaOH solution? The answer is as follows: the nuclei of the sodium (Fig. 4,a) atoms are completely destroyed during the plasma electrolytic process. The presence of potassium on the surface of the cathode, which operated in NaOH solution (Table 4), can be explained by insufficient ablution of the reactor after the operation with KOH solution.

As free protons and neutrons appear during the destruction of the nucleus of the sodium atom (Fig. 4,a), some nuclei of this element begin to form the atomic nuclei of aluminium (Fig. 4, b), chlorine (Fig. 4, c) and calcium (Fig. 5).

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent for the construction of the atomic nuclei of aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the hydrogen atom formation.

If we knew the total quantity of transmutating atomic nuclei of iron, potassium and sodium as well as the exact composition of the gases generated during the plasma electrolytic process, it would be possible to determine the atomic nuclei being formed from additional nucleons. Now we can only suppose that the majority of new nuclei are the protons, i.e. the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. The increased volume of the gases generated during the plasma electrolytic process is explained by it [6].




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                  a) Na (11,12)                         b) Al (13,14)                     c) Cl (17,18)                 

 

Fig. 4. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) sodium, b) aluminium, c) chlorine





 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


                                                                              Ca (20,20)

 

Fig. 5. Diagram of the nucleus of the calcium atom





The analysis of these Tables shows that transmutation of the nuclei of iron, of which the cathodes are made, results in the formation of chromium and copper in both cases. Apparently, aluminium, chlorine and calcium are formed from the destroyed sodium nuclei. In any case, free protons and neutrons are formed.

But not all free protons and neutrons are spent for the formation of the atomic nuclei of copper, aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the formation of the hydrogen atoms. In any case, the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed. The analysis has shown that plasma electrolytic process extracts not more than 0.005 kg of alkaline metal from one litre of the solution. It appears from this that if all neutrons of the atomic nuclei of the molecules of water and alkali metals are transferred into the protons and the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed, the formed volume of gas will be considerably less than the one registered during the experiment (Table 1). A question arises: where do additional gases come from? In other to get the answer on this question we made the next experiment.



THE SECOND EXPERIMENTAL PART

 

First of all we take in a count,  that high temperature of plasma forms the conditions when a set of various processes takes place at the cathode. First of all, water is boiled and evaporated. At the same tome, one part of water molecules is disintegrated with a release of the atomic hydrogen, another part of the molecules forms the orthohydrogen molecules. A part of water molecules is disintegrated completely and is released at the cathode together with hydrogen and oxygen. A part of hydrogen is combined with oxygen again generating microexplosions (noise) and forming water.

During plasma electrolysis of water, water vapor, hydrogen and oxygen are released simultaneously. If vapor is condensed, gas mixture is released. In order to measure gas flow rate  the electronic anemometer have been used. Diameter of the electronic anemometer was equal to internal diameter of the gas make tube (23, Fig. 1). Its readings were registered and processed by the computer. The experiment was performed dozen time, and each time its readings were reproduced with small deviations [11]. But we had no hydrogen analyzer, that’s why the results being obtained cannot be considered as final ones. We admonished it in all editions of the book Water is a New Source of Energy with such a phrase: “We abstain from lending an official status to these results with the hope to get necessary financing and to repeat them with a complete set of the necessary devices” [12, page 176].

In the middle of the year of 2002 we received small financing, which allowed us to make a new reactor and to buy some measuring instruments, in particular the scales with the measurement limit up to 600 g and accuracy of 0.02 g. Careful preparation allowed us to increase duration of continuous operation of the reactor (to 10 and more hourses) and to register solution consumption for gas production.

The main difficulty of operation with the hydrogen is in the fact that its mixture with air (4-74)% or oxygen (4-94)% is combustible, and the fact was emphasized more than once during the experiments making the researches be very careful. The second difficulty during hydrogen quantity measurements generated by the plasma electrolytic reactor is in the fact that its molecule has the smallest dimensions, that’s why it penetrates easily to the places where the molecules of other substances do not penetrate. Molecular hydrogen diffuses easily even into metals. For example, one volume of palladium absorbs up to 800 volumes of hydrogen.

Gas flow speed was measured with the help of various anemometers, its readings being registered with the help of the computer. Numerous measurements and numerous analysis of gas flow speed measurement accuracy with the help of the anemometers showed that error of a conventional anemometer can be  100%.




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 





Fig. 6. Diagram of measurement of flow rate of the gas and its volume: 1 - tap for gas flow movement direction switching, 2 – anemometer, 3 – graduated tank, 4 – water tank




It is known that it is possible to produce 1220 litres of hydrogen and 622 litres of oxygen from one litre of water. Quantity of the gases generated by the plasma electrolytic process is much greater than it is possible to get from consumed water (Table 1). It was a strong reason for a search of the measurement error. For this purpose, the diagram of measurement of flow rate of the gases and their quantity was used (Fig. 6). 

The results of the measurements were as follows. The anemometer showed that 200 litres of gas mixture penetrated through it during 10 minutes. Nearly one litre of gases was in the graduated tank during this period.

Thus, the measurement of gas flow with the help of the anemometers distorted the result 200fold. It should be mentioned that the reactor operated in the production mode of hydrogen and oxygen in the cathode zone. As a result, their mixture burst. The pulses of these explosions increased the readings of the anemometer.

It has become necessary to return to the reactor operation modes when no oxygen is released in the cathode zone.  Our theory allows us to do this easy.




PROTOCOL

of tests of the first model of low-current Electrolyzers

 

It is known that it is possible to produce 1.22 l of + 0.622  = 1.843 () from 1 ml of




Experimental results

Indices

1

2

3

Average

1-duration of experiment, hour

1

1

1

1

2-voltage, V

70

70

70

      70

3-current, A

0.038

0.080

0.098

0.072

4 – power, W

2.7

5.60

6.44

4.91

4-volume of consumed solution, ml

1.67

     3.98

4.32

3.32

5-density of the solution, kg/l

1.04

1.04

1.04

1.04

6-volume of consumed water, ml

1.60

3.83

4.15

3.19

7-volume of the gas mixture being produced, l

2.95

7.06

7.85

5.95

6-volume of hydrogen being produced, l

1.95

4.67

5.07

3.80

7-energy consumption per l of hydrogen, W×h/l

1.38

1.20

1.27

1.28

8-energy consumption per m3 of hydrogen, kWh/m3

1.38

1.20

1.27

1.28

9-existing energy consumption for production of 1 m3 of hydrogen from water, kWh/m3

4.00

4.00

4.00

4.00





CONCLUSION

 

          Transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material during plasma electrolysis of water  existed.  Plasma electrolytic process opens new prospects in study of matter on the nuclear, atomic and molecular levels.

         The low-current electrolysis  allow us to get  the inexpensive hydrogen from water.




REFERENCES

 

1. M. Fleischmann, S. Pons and M. Hawkins. Electrochemically Induced Nuclear Fusion of Deuterium. J. Electroanal. Chem. 261, 301 (1989),

2. ICCF-7 ACCEPTED ABSTRACTS. Infinite Energy. V. 4, Issue 20, p. 59…69.

3. Harold L. Fox. Cold nuclear fusion: essence, problems, influence on the world. View from USA. Production group SVITAX. M.: 1993, 180 pages.

4. T. Ohmori, T. Mizuno. Strong Excess Energy Evolution, New Element Production, and Electromagnetic Wave and/or Neutron Emission in Light Water Electrolysis with a Tungsten Cathode. Infinite Energy. Issue 20, 1998. Pages 14-17.

5. T. Mizuno. Nuclear Transmutation: The Reality of Cold Fusion. Infinite Energy Press. 1998. 151 pages.

6. Ph. Kanarev. Foundations of Physchemistry of Microworld COLD FUSION BY PLASMA ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER. Krasnodar, 2002. 330 pages.

 7. Kenneth R. Shoulders, "Method of and Apparatus for Production and  Manipulations of High Density Charge", U.S. Patent 5,054,046, issued Oct 1, 1991.

 8. Ken Shoulders & Steve Shoulders, "Observations on the Role of  Charge Clusters in Nuclear Cluster Reactions", J. of New Energy, vol. 1, no 3, pp 111-121, Fall 1996, 7 refs, 22 figs.

 9.  Hal Fox, Robert W. Bass, & Shang-Xian Jin, "Plasma-Injected Transmutation", J. of New Energy, vol. 1, no 3, Fall 1996, pp 222-230, 23 refs, 4 figs.

               10.  Shang-Xian Jin & Hal Fox, "High Density Charge Cluster Collective Ion Accelerator," J. of New Energy, vol. 4, no 2, Fall 1999, pp 96-104, 47 refs, 4 figs., 3 tables.

       11. Ph.M. Kanarev. Water is the Main Power Carrier of  Future Power Engineering.  Journal of New Energy.  An International  Journal of New Energy  Systems. Vol. 6, No.2. Pag. 101-121.

       12. Ph.M. Kanarev. Water is New Source of Energy. The Third Edition. Krasnodar  2002.  194p. (In English).



Kanarev: Cold Fusion by Plasma Electrolysis of Water

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[1] In order to increase safety   of experimental results, the volume of the gases introduced with the help of anemometer is reduced  twofold.